ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Sown wildflower meadows: Can they replace natural meadows in urban spaces for bees, butterflies and hoverflies?
Barbara Zajdel,
Łukasz Dylewski,
Agata Jojczyk,
Weronika Banaszak-Cibicka,
Kornelia Kucharska,
Mikołaj Borański,
Jakub Gąbka,
Corresponding Author
Barbara Zajdel
Apiculture Division, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
Correspondence
Barbara Zajdel, Apiculture Division, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Warsaw, Poland.
Email: [email protected]
Contribution: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Methodology, Writing - review & editing, Visualization
Search for more papers by this authorŁukasz Dylewski
Institute of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
Contribution: Writing - review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Visualization
Search for more papers by this authorAgata Jojczyk
Department of Landscape Art, Institute of Environmental Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
Contribution: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorWeronika Banaszak-Cibicka
Institute of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
Contribution: Writing - review & editing, Investigation
Search for more papers by this authorKornelia Kucharska
Department of Animal Environment Biology, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
Contribution: Investigation
Search for more papers by this authorMikołaj Borański
Apicultural Division in Pulawy, The National Institute of Horticultural Research, Skierniewice, Poland
Contribution: Investigation
Search for more papers by this authorJakub Gąbka
Apiculture Division, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
Contribution: Investigation
Search for more papers by this authorBarbara Zajdel,
Łukasz Dylewski,
Agata Jojczyk,
Weronika Banaszak-Cibicka,
Kornelia Kucharska,
Mikołaj Borański,
Jakub Gąbka,
Corresponding Author
Barbara Zajdel
Apiculture Division, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
Correspondence
Barbara Zajdel, Apiculture Division, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Warsaw, Poland.
Email: [email protected]
Contribution: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Methodology, Writing - review & editing, Visualization
Search for more papers by this authorŁukasz Dylewski
Institute of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
Contribution: Writing - review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Visualization
Search for more papers by this authorAgata Jojczyk
Department of Landscape Art, Institute of Environmental Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
Contribution: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorWeronika Banaszak-Cibicka
Institute of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
Contribution: Writing - review & editing, Investigation
Search for more papers by this authorKornelia Kucharska
Department of Animal Environment Biology, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
Contribution: Investigation
Search for more papers by this authorMikołaj Borański
Apicultural Division in Pulawy, The National Institute of Horticultural Research, Skierniewice, Poland
Contribution: Investigation
Search for more papers by this authorJakub Gąbka
Apiculture Division, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
Contribution: Investigation
Search for more papers by this authorFirst published: 20 November 2024
Associate Editor: Christopher Hassall
[Corrections added on 27 November 2024, after first online publication: The author names have been corrected throughout and affiliation number 5 has been corrected.]
Abstract
- The decline in pollinator populations is partly due to human practices that have contributed to the loss of wild and flower-rich habitats. In cities, especially city centres, urban green spaces, which are usually small, are often sown with wildflower meadows.
- The study compared the number and species richness of three main groups of pollinating insects (wild bees, butterflies and hoverflies) for two types of meadows in Warsaw: sown wildflower meadows and the natural meadows.
- The research results showed that there was no difference in the composition of insect-pollinated plants between the meadow types. There was also no difference between the meadow types concerning the species richness of butterflies, bees and hoverflies. However, it was confirmed that the number of butterflies was twice as high in natural meadows than it was in sown floral meadows, while in the case of wild bees and hoverflies, no such differences were found.
- The study confirmed that areas sown with wildflowers, usually of small area, concentrate pollinating insects and have a similar value for pollinators as larger areas of natural meadow. Sown wildflower meadows, if properly cared for, can ensure the richness of melliferous plant species and thus positively affect the diversity and number of pollinators.
- Sown meadows can compensate insects for the absence of large, natural meadows, especially in the fragmented spaces in cities.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
We declare that there are no disputes regarding the ownership of the data presented in the article. All contributions have been properly attributed to coauthors.
Open Research
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Data are available at the Dryad Digital Repository https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.pzgmsbcx6 (Zajdel at al., 2024). [Correction added on 27 November 2024, after first online publication: The Dryad link has been updated].
Supporting Information
| Filename | Description |
|---|---|
| een13396-sup-0001-AppendixS1.docxWord 2007 document , 35.4 KB | Appendix S1. Mean number and SD of pollinators in natural and wildflower meadows (U Mann–Whitney, p < 0,05). |
| een13396-sup-0002-AppendixS2.xlsxExcel 2007 spreadsheet , 18.2 KB | Appendix S2. List of plant species in natural and wildflower meadows. |
| een13396-sup-0003-Tables.xlsxExcel 2007 spreadsheet , 14.4 KB | Data S1. Supporting Information. |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
REFERENCES
- Aguilera, G., Ekroos, J., Persson, A.S., Pettersson, L.B. & Öckinger, E. (2019) Intensive management reduces butterfly diversity over time in urban green spaces. Urban Ecosystems, 22, 335–344.
- Ahrné, K., Bengtsson, J. & Elmqvist, T. (2009) Bumble bees (Bombus spp) along a gradient of increasing urbanization. PLoS One, 4(5), e5574. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005574
- Aldrich, J.H. (2002) Factors and benefits in the establishment of modest-sized wildflower plantings: a review. Native Plants Journal, 3(1), 67–86. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3368/npj.3.1.67
10.3368/npj.3.1.67 Google Scholar
- Baldock, K.C.R., Goddard, M.A., Hicks, D.M., Kunin, W.E., Mitschunas, N., Osgathorpe, L.M. et al. (2015) Where is the UK's pollinator biodiversity? The importance of urban areas for flower- visiting insects. Proceedings of the Royal Society, 282, 10.
- Banaszak, J. (1993) Trzmiele Polski, Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna w Bydgoszczy, Bydgoszcz.
- Banaszak, J. (2000) A checklist of the bee species (Hymenoptera, Apoidea) of Poland, with remarks on their taxonomy and oogeography: revised version. Fragmenta Faunistica, 43(9–17), 135–193. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3161/00159301FF2000.43.14.135
10.3161/00159301FF2000.43.14.135 Google Scholar
- Banaszak, J., Banaszak-Cibicka, W. & Szefer, P. (2014) Guidelines on sampling intensity of bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Apiformes). Journal of Insect Conservation, 18, 651–656.
- Banaszak-Cibicka, W., Twerd, L., Fliszkiewicz, M., Giejdasz, K. & Langowska, A. (2018) City parks vs. natural areas-is it possible to preserve a natural level of bee richness and abundance in a city park? Urban Ecosystems, 21, 599–613. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-018-0756-8
- Banaszak-Cibicka, W. & Żmihorski, M. (2012) Wild bees along an urban gradient: winners and losers. Journal of Insect Conservation, 16, 331–343. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-011-9419-2
- Baselga, A. (2010) Partitioning the turnover and nestedness components of beta diversity. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 19, 134–143. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00490.x
- Baselga, A., Orme, C.D.L., Villéger, S., De Bortoli, J. & Leprieur, F. (2018) R Package ‘betapart’. Partitioning Beta Diversity into Turnover and Nestedness Components, Version 1.5.0.
- Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B. & Walker, S. (2015) Fitting linear Mixedeffects models using lme 4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. Available from: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
10.18637/jss.v067.i01 Google Scholar
- Bennet, A.B. & Lovell, S. (2019) Landscape and local site variables differentially influence pollinators and pollination services in urban agricultural sites. PLoS One, 14, e0212034. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212034
- Beyer, K.M.M., Kaltenbach, A., Szabo, A., Bogar, S., Nieto, F.J. & Malecki, K.M. (2014) Exposure to neighborhood green space and mental health: evidence from the survey of the health of Wisconsin. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 11, 3453–3472.
- Campbell, D.R., Bischoff, M., Lord, J.M. & Robertson, A.W. (2012) Where have all the blue flowers gone: pollinator responses and selection on flower colour in New Zealand Wahlenbergia albomarginata. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 25, 352–364. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2011.02430.x
- Cariveau, D.P. & Winfree, R. (2015) Causes of variation in wild bee responses to anthropogenic drivers. Current Opinion in Insect Science, 10, 104–109.
- Carvell, C., Roy, D.B., Smart, S.M., Pywell, R.F., Preston, C.D. & Goulson, D. (2006) Declines in forage availability for bumblebees at a national scale. Biological Conservation, 132, 481–489.
- Chong, K.Y., Teo, S., Kurukulasuriya, B., Chung, Y.F., Rajathurai, S. & Wah Tan, H.T. (2014) Not all green is as good: different effects of the natural and cultivated components of urban vegetation on bird and butterfly diversity. Biological Conservation, 171, 299–309. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.01.037
- Dallimer, M., Irvine, K.N., Skinner, A.M.J., Davies, Z.G., Rouquette, J.R., Maltby, L. et al. (2012) Biodiversity and the feel-good factor: understanding associations between self-reported human well-being and species richness. Bioscience, 62(1), 47–55. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2012.62.1.9
- Del Toro, I. & Relena, R.R. (2020) No mow may lawns have higher pollinator richness and abundances: an engaged community provides floral resources for pollinators. Peer J, 8, 10021.
- Denisow, B., Strzałkowska-Abramek, M., Bożek, M. & Jeżak, A. (2014) Early spring nectar and pollen and insect visitor behavior in two Corydalis species (Papaveraceae). Journal of Apicultural Science, 58(1), 93–102.
10.2478/jas-2014-0009 Google Scholar
- Dylewski, Ł., Maćkowiak, Ł. & Banaszak-Cibicka, W. (2019) Are all urban green spaces a favourable habitat for pollinator communities? Bees, butterflies and hoverflies in different urban green areas. Ecological Entomology, 44(5), 678–689.
- Dylewski, Ł., Maćkowiak, Ł. & Banaszak-Cibicka, W. (2020) Linking pollinators and city flora: how vegetation composition and environmental features shapes pollinators composition in urban environment. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 56, 126795. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126795
- Fabos, J.G. & Ryan, R.L. (2006) An introduction to greenway planning around the world. Landscape and Urban Planning, 76, 1–6. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.09.028
- Ferrazzi, P., Bacci, S., Marletto, F. & Porporato, M. (2000) Foraging behaviour of the honeybee in forest environment. Insect Social Life, 3, 107–114.
- Fischer, L.K., Eichfeld, J., Kowarik, I. & Buchholz, S. (2016) Disentangling urban habitat and matrix effects on wild bee species. PeerJ, 4, e2729. Available from: https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2729
- Forbes, S., Cooper, D. & Kendle, A.D. (1997) The history and development of ecological landscape styles. In: T. Kendle & S. Forbes (Eds.) Urban nature conservation-landscape management in the urban countryside. London, UK: Chapman & Hall, pp. 244–254.
- Fox, J. & Sanford Weisberg, S. (2011) 2019 AAn R companion to applied regression, 3rd edition Available from: https://books.google.pl/books?id=uPNrDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=pl&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false. Sage Publications. 2024, October 24.
- Frankie, G.W., Thorp, R.W., Schindler, M., Hernandez, J., Ertter, B. & Rizzardi, M. (2005) Ecological patterns of bees and their host ornamental flowers in two northern California cities. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 78(3), 227–246. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2317/0407.08.1
- Fründ, J., Linsenmair, K.E. & Blüthgen, N. (2010) Pollinator diversity and specialization in relation to flower diversity. Oikos, 119, 1581–1590.
- Fukase, J. & Simons, A.M. (2016) Increased pollinator activity in urban gardens with more native flora. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 14(1), 297–310. Available from: https://doi.org/10.15666/AEER/1401_297310
10.15666/aeer/1401_297310 Google Scholar
- Gathmann, A. & Tscharntke, T. (2002) Foraging ranges of solitary bees. Journal of Animal Ecology, 71, 757–764.
- Gaudel, P., Paudel, M., Gaudel, P., Giri, B.R. & Shrestha, B.R. (2020) Mortality census of the road-killed butterflies in Mahendra highway, Nepal. Journal of Insect Biodiversity and Systematics, 6(1), 87–99.
10.52547/jibs.6.1.87 Google Scholar
- Goddard, M.A., Dougill, A.J. & Benton, T.G. (2010) Scaling up from gardens: biodiversity conservation in urban environments. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 25, 90–98. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.07.016
- Green Flag Awards. (2024). http://www.greenflagaward.org/
- Griffiths-Lee, J., Nicholls, E. & Goulson, D. (2022) Sown mini-meadows increase pollinator diversity in gardens. Journal of Insect Conservation, 26, 299–314. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-022-00387-2
- Gunnarsson, B. & Federsel, L.M. (2014) Bumblebees in the city: abundance, species richness and diversity in two urban habitats. Journal of Insect Conservation, 18, 1185–1191. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-014-9729-2
- Hands, D.E. & Brown, R.D. (2002) Enhancing visual preference of ecological rehabilitation sites. Landscape and Urban Planning, 58(1), 57–70. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(01)00240-7
- Harrison, T. & Winfree, R. (2015) Urban drivers of plant-pollinator interactions. Functional Ecology, 29, 879–888. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12486
- Hausmann, S.L., Petermann, J.S. & Rolff, J. (2016) Wild bees as pollinators of city trees. Insect Conservation and Diversity, 9, 97–107. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/icad.12145
- Herrmann, J., Buchholz, S. & Theodorou, P. (2023) The degree of urbanisation reduces wild bee and butterfly diversity and alters the patterns of flower-visitation in urban dry grasslands. Scientific Reports, 13, 2702. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29275-8
- Hicks, D.M., Ouvrard, P., Baldock, K.C.R., Baud, E.M., Goddard, M.A., Kunin, W.E. et al. (2016) Food for pollinators: quantifying the nectar and pollen resources of urban flower meadows. PLoS One, 11(6), e0158117. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158117
- Hill, M.O. (1973) Diversity and evenness: a unifying notation and its consequences. Ecology, 54(2), 427–432. Available from: doi:10.2307/1934352
- Hülsmann, M., Von Wehrden, H., Klein, A.M. & Leonhardt, S.D. (2015) Plant diversity and composition compensate for negative effects of urbanization on foraging bumble bees. Apidologie, 46, 760–770. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-015-0366-x
- Ignatieva, M., Haase, D., Dushkova, D. & Haase, A. (2020) Lawns in cities: from a globalised urban green space phenomenon to sustainable nature-based solutions. Land, 9(3), 73. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/land9030073
- Jiang, Y. & Yuan, T. (2017) Public perceptions and preferences for wildflower meadows in Beijing, China. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 27, 324–331. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.07.004
- Johnson, S. & Klemens, M. (2013) Landscape-scale factors influencing butterfly populations: a synthesis of recent research. Biodiversity and Conservation, 22(3), 523–545.
- Kantola, T., Tracy, J.L., Baum, K.A., Quinn, M.a. & Coulson, R.N. (2019) Spatial risk assessment of eastern monarch butterfly road mortality during autumn migration within the southern corridor. Biological Conservation, 231, 150–160. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.008
- Kaplan, R. & Kaplan, S. (1989) The experience of nature: a psychological perspective. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
- Karalus, K. & Bąkowksi, M. (2015) Railway tracks can have great value for butterflies as a new alternative habitat. Italian Journal of Zoology, 82(4), 565–572. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/11250003.2015.1078417
10.1080/11250003.2015.1078417 Google Scholar
- Kevan, P.G. & Viana, B.F. (2003) The global decline of pollination services. Biodiversity, 4, 3–8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2003.9712703
10.1080/14888386.2003.9712703 Google Scholar
- Krzysztofiak, A., Krzysztofiak, L. & Pawlikowski, T. (2004) Trzmiele Polski, Człowiek i przyroda. Suwałki. (in Polish): Człowiek i przyroda.
- La biodiversité en Wallonie. (2024) Pollinisateurs. http://biodiversite.wallonie.be/fr/pollinisateurs.html?IDC=5617
- Lensu, T., Komonen, A., Hiltula, O., Päivinen, J., Saari, V. & Kotiaho, J.S. (2011) The role of power line rights-of-way as an alternative habitat for declined mire butterflies. Journal of Environmental Management, 92, 2539–2546. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.05.019
- Lerman, S.B., Contosta, A.R., Milam, J. & Bang, C. (2018) To mow or to mow less: Lawn mowing frequency affects bee abundance and diversity in suburban yards. Biological Conservation, 221, 160–174. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.01.025
- Lizée, M.H., Mauffrey, J.F., Tatoni, T. & Deschamps-Cottin, M. (2011) Monitoring urban environments on the basis of biological traits. Ecological Indicators, 11, 353–361. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2010.06.003
- Lowenstein, D.M., Matteson, K.C. & Minor, E.S. (2015) Diversity of wild bees supports pollination services in an urbanized landscape. Oecologia, 179, 811–821. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-015-3389-0
- Lowenstein, D.M., Matteson, K.C., Xiao, I., Silva, A.M. & Minor, E.S. (2014) Humans, bees, and pollination services in the city: the case of Chicago, IL (USA). Biodiversity and Conservation, 23, 2857–2874. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-014-0752-0
- Luke, S.G. (2017) Evaluating significance in linear mixed-effects models in R. Behavior Research Methods, 49, 1494–1502.
- Mattesson, K.C. & Lagnelotto, G.A. (2010) Determinates of inner city butterfly and bee species richness. Urban Ecosystems, 13, 333–347. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-010-0122-y
10.1007/s11252-010-0122-y Google Scholar
- McDonnell, M.J. & Pickett, S.T.A. (1990) The study of ecosystem structure and function along urban-ruralgradients: an unexploited opportunity for ecology. Ecology, 71, 1231–1237.
- McFrederick, Q.S. & LeBuhn, G. (2006) Are urban parks refuges for bumble bees Bombus spp.(hymenoptera: Apidae)? Biological Conservation, 129, 372–382. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.11.004
- McKinney, M.L. (2002) Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. Bioscience, 52, 883–890. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(99)01679-1
10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0883:UBAC]2.0.CO;2 Google Scholar
- McKinney, M.L. & Lockwood, J.L. (1999) Biotic homogenization: a few winners replacing many losers in the next mass extinction. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 14, 450–453. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(99)01679-1
- Mody, K., Lerch, D., Müller, A.K., Simons, N.S., Blüthgen, N. & Harnisch, M. (2020) Flower power in the city: replacing roadside shrubs by wildflowermeadows increases insect numbers and reduces maintenance costs. PLoS One, 15(6), e0234327. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234327
- Müller, A., Bøcher, P.D., Fischer, C. & Svenning, J.-C. (2018) ‘Wild’ in the city context: do relative wild areas offer opportunities for urban biodiversity? Landscape and Urban Planning, 170, 256–265. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.09.027
- Müller, A., Diener, S., Schnyder, S., Stutz, K., Sedivy, C. & Dorn, S. (2006) Quantitative pollen requirements of solitary bees: implications for bee conservation and the evolution of bee-flower relationships. Biological Conservation, 130, 604–615. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.01.023
- Norton, B.A., Bending, G.D., Clark, R., Corstanje, R., L Dunnett, N., Evans, K.L. et al. (2019) Urban meadows as an alternative to short mown grassland: effects of composition and height on biodiversity. Ecological Applications, 29(6), e01946. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.1946
- Oksanen, F.J. (2017) Vegan: community ecology package.R package Version 2, 4–3. https://CRAN.Rproject.org/package=vegan
- O'Sullivan, O.S., Holt, A.R., Warren, P.H. & Evans, K.L. (2017) Optimsing UK urban road verge contributions to biodiversity and ecosystem services with cost-effective management. Journal of Environmental Management, 191, 162–171. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.12.062
- Pardee, G.L. & Philpott, S.M. (2014) Native plants are the bee's knees: local and landscape predictors of bee richness and abundance in backyard gardens. Urban Ecosystems, 17, 641–659. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-014-0349-0
- Potts, S.G., Vulliamy, B., Dafni, A., Nee'man, G. & Willmer, P. (2003) Linking bees and flowers: how do floral communities structure pollinator communities? Ecology, 84, 2628–2642. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1890/02-0136
- Przybysz, A., Popek, R., Stankiewicz-Kosyl, M., Zhu, C.Y., Małecka-Przybysz, M., Maulidyawati, T. et al. (2021) Where trees cannot grow – particulate matter accumulation by urban meadows. Science of the Total Environment, 785, 147310. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147310
- R Core Team (2020). R: A language and environment, for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Available from: https://www.R-project.org/.
- Ries, L., Debinski, D.M. & Wieland, M.L. (2001) Conservation value of roadside prairie restoration to butterfly communities. Conservation Biology, 15(2), 401–411. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002401.x
- Russel, K.N., Ikerd, H. & Droege, S. (2005) The potential conservation value of unmowed powerline strips for native bees. Biological Conservation, 124, 133–148. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.01.022
- Saarinen, K., Valtonen, A., Jantunen, J. & Sanna, S. (2005) Does road type affect diversity and abundance? Biological Conservation, 123(3), 403–412. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2004.12.012
- Sandström, U.G., Angelstam, P. & Khakee, A. (2006) Urban comprehensive planning – identifying barriers for the maintenance of functional habitat networks. Landscape and Urban Planning, 75(1–2), 43–57. Available from: doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.11.016
10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.11.016 Google Scholar
- Schneider, C., Dover, J. & Fry, G.L.A. (2003) Movement of two grassland butterflies in the same habitat network: the role of adult resources and size of the study area. Ecological Entomology, 28, 219–227. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2311.2003.00494.x
- Settele, J., Dover, J., Dolek, M. & Konvickam, M. (2009) Butterflies of European ecosystems: impact of land use and options for conservation management. In: J. Settele, T. Shreeve, A. Konvicka & H. Dyck (Eds.) Ecology of butterflies in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 353–370.
- Sikora, A., Michołap, P. & Sikora, M. (2020) What kind of flowering plants are attractive for bumblebees in urban green areas? Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 48, 26546. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126546
10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126546 Google Scholar
- Sikorski, P., Gawryszewska, B., Sikorska, D., Choromański, J., Schwerk, A., Jojczyk, A. et al. (2021) The value of doing nothing–how informal green spaces can provide comparable ecosystem services to cultivated urban parks. Ecosystem Services, 50, 1–12. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2021.101339
10.1016/j.ecoser.2021.101339 Google Scholar
- Sirohi, M.H., Jackson, J., Edwards, M. & Ollerton, J. (2015) Diversity and abundance of solitary and primitively eusocial bees in an urban centre: a case study from Northampton (England). Journal of Insect Conservation, 19, 487–500. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-015-9769-2
- Skórka, P., Lenda, M., Moroń, D., Kalarus, K. & Tryjanowski, P. (2013) Factors affecting road mortality and the suitability of road verges for butterflies. Biological Conservation, 159, 148–157. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2012.12.028
- Smith, J., Jones, M. & Brown, R. (2010) The effects of habitat size and quality on butterfly diversity in grassland ecosystems. Journal of Insect Conservation, 14(4), 487–495.
- Southon, G.E., Jorgensen, A., Dunnett, N., Hoyle, H. & Evans, K.L. (2017) Biodiverse perennial meadows have aesthetic value and increase residents' perceptions of site quality in urban green-space. Landscape and Urban Planning, 158, 105–118. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.08.003
- Speight, M.C.D. (2017) Species Accounts of European Syrphidae (Diptera) (THE DATABASE OF EUROPEAN SYRPHIDAE) (DIPTERA) Vol. 97 (2024).
- Steffan-Dewenter, I., Munzenberg, U., Burger, C., Thies, C. & Tscharntke, T. (2002) Scale-dependent effects of landscape context on three pollinator guilds. Ecology, 83, 1421–1432. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[1421:SDEOLC]2.0.CO;2
- Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2001) Succession of bee communities on fallows. Ecography, 24, 83–93.
- The Royal Horticultural Society. (2024) British in bloom. https://www.rhs.org.uk/get-involved/britain-in-bloom
- Theodorou, P., Albig, K., Radzevičiūtė, R., Settele, J., Schweiger, O., Murray, T.E. et al. (2017) The structure of flower visitor networks in relation to pollination across an agricultural to urban gradient. Functional Ecology, 31, 838–847. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12803
- Theodorou, P., Herbst, S.C., Kahnt, B.P., Baltz, L.M., Osterman, J. & Paxton, R.J. (2020) Urban fragmentation leads to lower floral diversity, with knock-on impacts on bee biodiversity. Scientific Reports, 10, 21756. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78736-x
- Trigos-Peral, G., Rutkowski, T., Witek, M., Ślipiński, P., Babik, H. & Czechowski, W. (2020) Three categories of urban green areas and the effect of their different management on the communities of ants, spiders and harvestmen. Urban Ecosystems, 23, 803–818. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-020-00949-9
10.1007/s11252-020-00949-9 Google Scholar
- Tylianakis, J.M. (2013) The global plight of pollinators. Science, 339, 1532–1533. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12803
- Valtonen, A., Saarinen, K. & Jantunen, J. (2007) Intersection reservations as habitats for meadow butterflies and diurnal moths: guidelines for planning and management. Landscape and Urban Planning, 79(3–4), 201–209. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.09.003
- Van Veen, M.P. (2004) Hoverflies of Northwest Europe: identification keys to the Syrphidae. Utrecht: KNNV Publishing, p. 245.
10.1163/9789004274495 Google Scholar
- Vanbergen, A., Heard, M., Breeze, T., Potts, S. & Hanley, N. (2014) Status and value of pollinators and pollination services. A report of the department for environment, food and rural affairs. Available: http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/505259/ Accessed 10 August 2022.
- Watson, C.J., Carignan-Guillemette, L., Turcotte, C., Maire, V. & Proulx, R. (2019) Ecological and economic benefits of low-intensity urban lawn management. Journal of Applied Ecology, 57, 436–446. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13542
- Weiner, C.N., Werner, M., Linsenmair, K.E. & Blüthgen, N. (2011) Land use intensity in grasslands: changes in biodiversity, species composition and specialisation in flower visitor networks. Basic and Applied Ecology, 12(4), 292–299. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2010.08.006
- White, M.P., Alcock, I., Wheeler, B.W. & Depledge, M.H. (2013) Would you be happier living in a greener urban area? A fixed-effects analysis of panel data. Psychological Science, 24, 920–928. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612464659
- Wickham, H. (2010) A layered grammar of graphics. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics, 19(1), 3–28.
- Zajdel, B., Borański, M., Kucharska, K., Jojczyk, A. & Brzezińska, K. (2019) Bumblebee communities (Apidae, Bombini) in urban parks in relation to park area and other characteristics. Polish Journal of Ecology, 67(1), 84–93. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3161/15052249PJE2019.67.1.007
- Zajdel, B., Dylewski, L., Jojczyk, A., Banaszak-Cibicka, W., Kucharska, K., Boranski, M. & Gabka, J. (2024). Sown wildflower meadows: Can they replace natural meadows in urban spaces for bees, butterflies, and hoverflies? [Dataset]. Dryad. https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.pzgmsbcx6
10.5061/dryad.pzgmsbcx6 Google Scholar
